Amphetamines
Amphetamine or Amfetamine, also known as alpha-methyl-phenethylamine, phenyl-isopropylamine, beta-phenyl-isopropylamine, and benzedrine, is a stimulant that is now primarily used to treat narcolepsy and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. It is also used recreationally as a club drug and as a performance enhancer (these uses are illegal in some countries). In the past it was more popularly used to diminish the appetite and to control weight.

Illicit production and use of amphetamines occurs on a widespread basis in several European nations, typically in the form of amphetamine sulfate synthesized from phenylpropanolamine.[citation needed] In addition, because of the widespread use of amphetamines as a treatment for narcolepsy and ADD/ADHD, prescription amphetamines are subject to diversion and are one of the most frequently- abused drugs in high schools and colleges.

History
Amphetamine was synthesized in 1887 by Lazar Edeleanu at the University of Berlin. It was one of a series of compounds related to the plant derivative Ephedrine, which had been purified two years previously by Nagayoshi Nagai. No medical use was found for amphetamine until the 1900s, when it was introduced in most of the world in the form of the pharmaceutical Benzedrine.

This drug was used by the militaries of several nations, especially the air forces, to fight fatigue and increase alertness among servicemen. After decades of reports of abuse, the FDA banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1959, but illegal use became common.

The related compound methamphetamine was first synthesized from ephedrine in Japan in 1893 by chemist Nagayoshi Nagai. In 1919, crystallized methamphetamine was synthesized by Akira Ogaberlandierita via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The German military was notorious for their use of methamphetamine in World War Two. In 1997 and 1998 researchers at Texas A&M University reported finding amphetamine and methamphetamine in the foliage of two Acacia species native to Texas, A. berlandieri and A. rigidula. Previously, both of these compounds had been thought to be human inventions.

Medicinal use:

• Diet suppressant
  
• ADD
  
• ADHD
  
• Narcolepsy
  
• Treatment-resistant depression
  

Along with methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), amphetamine is one of the standard treatments for ADHD. Beneficial effects for ADHD can include improved impulse control, improved concentration, decreased sensory overstimulation, and decreased irritability. These effects can be dramatic, particularly in young children. The ADHD medication Adderall is composed of four different amphetamine salts, and Adderall XR is a timed release formulation of these same salt forms. When used within the recommended doses, side-effects like loss of appetite tend to decrease over time. However, amphetamines last longer in the body than methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, etc.), and tend to have stronger side-effects on appetite and sleep.[citation needed] Amphetamines are also a standard treatment for narcolepsy as well as other sleeping disorders. They are generally effective over long periods of time without producing addiction or physical dependence. Amphetamines are sometimes used to augment anti-depressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression. Medical use for weight loss is still approved in some countries, but is regarded as obsolete and dangerous in others.

Effects of use
Amphetamines release stores of norepinephrine and dopamine from nerve endings by converting the respective molecular transporters into open channels. Amphetamine also releases stores of serotonin from synaptic vesicles when taken in relativly high doses.

This effect is more pronounced in methamphetamine use. Like methylphenidate (Ritalin), amphetamines also prevent the monoamine transporters for dopamine and norepinephrine from recycling them (called reuptake inhibition), which leads to increased amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in synaptic clefts.These combined effects rapidly increase the concentrations of the respective neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, which promotes nerve impulse transmission in neurons that have those receptors.

Physical effects
Short-term physiological effects vary greatly, depending on dosage used and the method in which the drug is taken. At theraputic levels these effects could include decreased appetite, increased stamina and physical energy, increased sexual drive/response. When the drug is abused effects could include involuntary bodily movements, hyperhidrosis,hyperactivity, jitteriness, nausea, itchy, blotchy or greasy skin, tachycardia, irregular heart rate, hypertension, and headaches. Fatigue can often follow the dose's period of effectiveness. Overdose can be treated with chlorpromazine. Long-term abuse or overdose effects can include tremor, restlessness, changed sleep patterns, anxiety and increase in pre-existing anxiety, poor skin condition, hyperreflexia, tachypnea, gastrointestinal narrowing, and weakened immune system[citation needed]. Fatigue and depression can follow the excitement stage. Erectile dysfunction, heart problems, stroke, and liver, kidney and lung damage can result from prolonged abuse. When insufflated, amphetamine can lead to a deterioration of the lining of the nostrils.

Psychological effects
Short-term psychological effects of the drug at theraputic levels could include alertness, euphoria, increased concentration, rapid talking, increased confidence, increased and social responsiveness. Effects of the drug when abused could include, nystagmus(eye wiggles),hallucinations, and loss of REM sleep the night after use.

Long-term amphetamine abuse can induce psychological effects that include insomnia, mental states resembling schizophrenia, aggressiveness not associated with schizophrenia), addiction or dependence with accompanying withdrawal symptoms, irritability, confusion, and panic. Chronic and/or extensively-continuous use can lead to amphetamine psychosis, which causes delusions and paranoia, but this is uncommon when taken as prescribed. The abuse of an amphetamine is highly-psychologically addictive, and, with chronic abuse, tolerance develops very quickly. Withdrawal, although not physiologically threatening, is an unpleasant experience (including paranoia, depression, difficult breathing, dysphoria, gastric fluctuations and/or pain, and lethargia). This commonly leads chronic users to re-dose amphetamine frequently, explaining tolerance and increasing the possibility of addiction.

Addiction
Tolerance is developed rapidly in amphetamine abuse, therefore increasing the amount of the drug that is needed to satisfy the addiction. Many abusers will repeat the amphetamine cycle by taking more of the drug during the withdrawal. This leads to a very dangerous cycle and may involve the use of other drugs to get over the withdrawal process. Chronic abusers of amphetamines typically snort or resort to drug injection to experience the full effects of the drug in a faster and more intense way, with the added risks of infection, vein damage and higher risk of overdose.


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